Beyond grid connection: A Q-methodology study of stakeholder perspectives on energy poverty in urban Ghana

Energy access remains a critical determinant of socio-economic development, facilitating education, healthcare, economic activities and enhanced quality of life. Although Ghana has achieved about 85 % electricity grid connectivity, urban energy poverty persists through complex interactions of economic, cultural and infrastructural factors. Drawing on the Capability Approach and Cultural-Ecological Theory, this study conceptualizes energy poverty as a multidimensional and culturally embedded phenomenon which extends beyond physical access to include quality, reliability and social meaning. It offers a novel framework that integrates subjective perspectives with multidimensional deprivation indicators to examine energy poverty and reveals vulnerabilities that traditional metrics often overlook. By employing the Q-methodology to explore the subjective perspectives of 40 urban Ghanaian stakeholders on energy poverty, four distinct viewpoints are identified- (i) economic hardship and basic needs trade-offs (ii) infrastructure reliability and traditional energy preferences (iii) gender equality and environmental awareness, (iv) service quality and modern energy preferences. The findings further reveal ‘hidden energy poverty’ where grid-connected households experience substantial consumption constraints due to affordability issues, cultural preferences and unreliable infrastructure. This study contributes to energy poverty scholarship and provides useful information for policy formulation to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.