Home heating transition in Finland, Romania, Sweden and the United Kingdom through the combined lens of energy democracy, energy citizenship and energy justice

Background: Heating is a key challenge for Europe’s decarbonisation goals, accounting for a large share of energy use and emissions while shaping everyday life, comfort, and vulnerability. This article compares home heating transitions in Finland, Romania, Sweden, and the United Kingdom through an integrated framework combining energy democracy, energy citizenship, and energy justice. The study examines how ownership, everyday practices, and inequality intersect to shape citizen roles in heating transitions across diverse political and infrastructural contexts. Results: Based on archival and secondary material, the analysis reveals strong contextual variation in how citizens engage with heating systems. In Finland and Sweden, municipally owned district heating offers collective stability but limited direct agency. In Romania, the collapse of state-controlled networks has left households dependent on individual and often inefficient systems. In the United Kingdom, liberalised markets promise consumer choice but deepen vulnerability through cost pressures and weak accountability. Across all cases, household participation is structured by infrastructures, welfare regimes, and historical legacies rather than by individual choice. Integrating democracy, citizenship, and justice highlights how governance models, daily practices, and inequalities interact in shaping heating transitions. Conclusions: Citizen-centred heating transitions require policy approaches sensitive to national contexts and social realities. Empowerment must go beyond rhetoric to include participatory governance in collective systems, equitable regulation in liberalised markets, and targeted support for vulnerable households. The study contributes an analytical framework that captures the social depth of decarbonisation and supports the design of heating transitions that are democratic, participatory, and just.