The effects of school-based yoga on the executive functioning skills of children between three and seven years of age. A meta-analysis of existing research

Purpose: Executive functioning is said to be fundamental to human cognition and achievement. This meta-analysis aimed to establish what effect – if any – yoga delivered in school-settings has upon the executive functioning skills of children between three and seven years of age. Procedure: Databases screened were PubMed Central, Web of Science, CINAHL, Scopus, and PsycARTICLES. Studies involving a yoga-based intervention alongside a control group, and age-appropriate measures of executive functioning were included. In total, seven studies, involving 1080 participants, met the inclusion criteria. Findings: Meta-analysis of all seven studies demonstrated a significant (p < 0.001) small positive weighted average effect size (Cohen's d) of 0.24 [95% CI 0.10, 0.39], evidencing that yoga may improve the executive functioning skills of children between three and seven years of age. Sub-group meta-analyses to examine the different domains of executive functioning (working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility) revealed a significant (p = 0.007) small positive effect size (Cohen's d) of 0.41 [95% CI 0.11, 0.70] for working memory, and a significant (p = 0.033) marginal positive effect size (Cohen's d) of 0.18 [95% CI 0.01, 0.34] for inhibitory control. However, there were insufficient data for a sub-group meta-analysis of cognitive flexibility. Conclusions: Results are discussed in the context of ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ executive functioning skills. Study limitations are considered, and it is acknowledged that further high-quality research is needed into the effect(s) of school-based yoga on executive functioning within this population before definitive conclusions can be drawn.